ANYONE who knows of Gu Hongming (1857-1928), a noted scholar of the late Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), is familiar with the following story told about him:

　　Once at a banquet, a German woman asked Gu why Chinese men could have more than one wife while Chinese women could have only one husband.

　　Gu gave the famous reply: "We know that one teapot is always set with four cups. But have you ever seen a cup with four teapots?"

　　Later, Gu's answer became known as the "Teapot Theory" and was used to explain the Chinese traditional marriage system of one husbandshavingsseveral "wives".

　　Gu came from the conservative old school which guarded and supported Chinese traditions. He also concluded that concubinage also owed its origins to the merits of Chinese women who were so tender and tame that they never thought about themselves.

　　"It is Chinese women's selflessness that makes concubinage not only possible in China but also not immoral," he said.

　　Of course, this is an explanation solely from the male standpoint. In ancient China, concubinage was allowed and regulated by the law as a legal custom while in most Western countries, husbands could only take lovers who then were not accepted by the rest of the family.

　　One reason for this is because the Chinese saw marriage as a family affair. If a marriage was not satisfactory, a concubine was thought to be able to help in making the family complete.

　　In the West, marriage was seen as a romantic personal affair which could be broken and rebuilt. The different concept led to a different system.

　　Marriages involving one husband and several wives, or more specifically, one wife and several concubines, has existed in China for thousands of years.

　　According to the traditional Chinese concept of marriage, a wife should be virtuous and capable but being also beautiful was not an essential prerequisite. The couple were set up by the matchmaker and their marriage agreed upon by their parents and they didn't even have to know one another before the wedding ceremony.

　　The relationship of a husband and wife was centred on its morality and love was not seen as being important. It was even thought if love existed, it should be concealed. Intimate behaviour between a couple was thought of as being light-minded and would be frowned upon by the elders. Politeness and respect between the couple was recommended instead.

　　Second-rate beauty

　　As for concubines, beauty was essential in their case and was the means to attract and win the favour of the husband. Their youth and beauty also made up for any shortcomings in this area on the part of the wife.

　　The well-known poet Cui Hao of the Tang Dynasty (618-907) had four or five concubines - he said he chose them just for their beauty.

　　Concubines, most of whom were born into poor families, were usually bought by the man. Some were even sent by friends as a gift.

　　These women, although they lived a rich life depending on their beauty, still had a low status in the family. Even if they gave birth, they were not thought of as members of the formal family - their status was just a little higher than that of the maids.

　　In the famous novel, "The Dream of the Red Mansion", Jia Zhen, the host of the family had a concubine surnamed Zhao. But her monthly pocket money was lower than that of a young maid who was favoured by the young lord. Zhao's daughter also never called her mother.

　　In real life, a concubine's fate could resemble a miserable tragedy. In the Tang Dynasty (618-907), a man called Yan Ting favoured his concubine Xuan Ying but this aroused the envy of his wife Pei and her son Yan Wu.

　　One day, while the concubine slept, Yan Wu bashed her to death with a hammer. Instead of being punished for the brutal murder, the father Yan Ting praised his son highly.

　　Accounts of deaths or injuries suffered by concubines at the hands of their overlords are not rare in feudal times. Some men even compelled their concubines to be buried alive with him after his death because he needed their companionship in the tomb.

　　Concubines were also thought of as their lords' personal property and they could be purchased or given away as gifts. In the poetry of the Tang Dynasty, there are several poems referring to making a "present of a concubine for a good horse". The value of a beautiful concubine was the same as a good horse and such purchases were thought of as a kind of heroism in those days.

　　In the Tang, Ming (1368-1644) and Qing dynasties, many laws were enacted to cover concubinage.

　　A law of the Tang Dynasty said concubines couldn't be promoted to the status of wife because "concubines are cheap and humble people".

　　And wives, though of higher status, also often led unhappy and bitter lives at home. In a big family with several concubines, jealousy was common. After being rejected by their husbands, wives had no choice but to endure loneliness.

　　Justified necessity

　　Wives who did not become pregnant after some years also had to encourage their husbands to find a concubine no matter if they wished this or not. Otherwise the wife could be thrown out because notshavingschildren was one of the seven reasons a man could give to divorce his wife.

　　In addition, in a male-oriented society, the attention and importance attached to the younger male generation, was used to justify the necessity of concubinage. In the old days, if a man had not had a boy by the time he reached his 40s, he could take a concubine.