考研英语写作的基本步骤_新浪教育

考研英语写作的基本步骤

http://www.sina.com.cn 2003/07/14 17:29 双博士丛书

　　写作犹如装修房屋，装修以前，要有设计方案。根据方案筹划装饰材料，然后粉墙刷壁、装材料。房屋初现雏形，则着手做细致的工作，直至满意为止。写作也是这样，通常有四个步骤：理解题意(Learning the theme)，整理思路(Organizing the thought)，起草成文(Drafting),修改润色(Revising)。

　　由于短文写作部分往往是控制性作文，所以只需根据题目，深入推敲提纲、主题句或

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图表等的内容，适当整理思路、搜集素材，就可着手写作，并立即修改定稿。

　　许多学生经常跟我讲写文章开头最难，一开始不知如何落笔，尤其是开头的几句话不知写什么。由于某种原因，有些人开头就是很难，哪怕是最好的作家也难逃过这样的一个问题。下面我们就帮助大家解决这样一个问题。

　　1文章的开头(Introduction):

　　绝大多数文章，或者段落，都可以分为以下三个步骤：

　　Introduction(Beginning)

　　Body(Middle)

　　Conclusion(End)

　　这一节的重点就是Introduction,字典这样定义introduction:“anything that introduces or prepares the way.”开头的最基本的要领就是：①to state and narrow the topic of the essay.②to interest the reader.

　　文章的Introduction是很重要的，它的长度至少是一句话、一段或者是几段。在开头的引导中作者要让读者明白你文章的题目，主题思想；你要让读者感兴趣或者制造悬念。文章的开头一般分为两种：直接或间接(direct or indirect)

　　(1)直接开头

　　直接开头很简单，顾名思义，就是开门见山地表明你要说什么。

　　例如：

　　①The purpose of my paper is to explain why college is expensive.

　　②I have observed two groups of adult education students: GED and ESL.I feel qualified to compare the two.

　　③On my next vacation why not relax for eight days and nights aboard an elegantocean liner? Booking a cruise is easy.

　　④I believe that not enough attention is given to American writer John Steinbeck.In the next few paragraphs I will explain why people should read Steinbecks books.

　　⑤When I was seventeen,I dropped out of high school. There were three reasonsfor this decision, and I would like to explain each of them.

　　我们可以看到“直接”开头法是很直接的。但作者也有一定的灵活性。直接开头法一般能最清楚地表达文章的重心，这也是开头的最重要的特点。

　　(2)间接开头

　　间接开头，顾名思义就是开头是间接的，间接开头往往是为了吸引读者。间接开头的方法是：

　　①演绎法

　　例如：

　　There are many, many people dying everyday. Some of these deaths, caused by disease and by old age, cannot be helped. There are, however, many deaths that could be prevented. One way to prevent many senseless deaths would be to implement some form of handgun control.

　　这种开头是从一般(there are many people dying everyday)到具体( deaths due to handguns)。这种从一般到具体的方法叫做“演绎法”(deduction)。这种间接开头不但能宣布主题而且能引人入胜。

　　②比较与对照法

　　例如：

　　Converging on the rocks of a river bank or the rim of the citys main well, thewomen of ancient ages met to beat and scrub their familys clothing clean as they reviewed their activities and savored the latest bits of gossip.With the airy openness of a seashore, Bob Stantons Laundromat in Palos Hills echoes of this past as it throbs to the pulsating rhythm of modern mechanization and the suburban life-style.

　　③“引言”(quotation)

　　例如：

　　In his poem“I sang,”Carl Sandburg wrote of love,“I sang to you and the moon butonly the moon remembers....”In a sense, all of us can identify with the speakers emotions. Most of us have no doubt experienced the feeling of loss that is aresult of unrequited love or of love gone wrong. There is,I think, a valuablelesson for all of us to learn from this very human experience.

　　④修辞学上的提问法(rhetorical question)

　　例如：

　　Are you tired of sleeping in a wet blanket that pretends to be a sinking boat? Have you had it with gnats and mosquitos in your outdoor cooking? Does the phrase“back to nature”mean that you sit and rest in a patch of poison ivy? Have you ever considered that your next vacation should follow my plan of renting a camper?

　　⑤以“例子”作为间接开头

　　例如：

　　My sister has always had a difficult time with spelling and with basic math. When she was little, my family transferred from one state to another, from one job to another, and from one school district to another. Only my sister was at the age when basic skills were being taught, and only my sisters education was affected so drastically. Our familys frequent moves have left other traces on my sister; unfortunately, the“corporate family,”as my fathers company labels us,is very common in this country. I would like to examine the negative problems the corporate family faces and offer suggestions on how to counter these negative effects.

　　⑥从具体到一般的“归纳法”(induction)式的间接开头

　　例如：

　　Johnnie Jones is four years old. Yesterday he hit his sister with a broom. Johnnies friend is four and one-half year old Brad Smith. Yesterday, Brad hit his pet Beagle with one of his toy trucks. Both boys learned these gestures from watching TV.Television shows teach children many acts of violence. In the next severalpages, I would like to examine some of the violent television shows and illustrate their effects on children.

　　(3)下面是一些不同的开头供你学习和模仿

　　①“A fool and his money are soon part

　　ed”seems to have been uttered by someone who knew me. In the past six months Ihave become the target of every doortodoor salesman. Its only in the last two days, however, that I have finally learned how to say“No!”to these hucksters. I feel it is my mission in life to share this newfound secret with you.Ozzie Lawson

　　②Good eyesight is a valued gift that every individual treasures.Many people, however, need help to maintain and acquire clear vision. One specific type of eyestrengthener is the contact lens. This type of lens can greatly improve and often correct eye deficiencies. Many individuals shy away from using this type of lens because they dont know how to apply them correctly. The method described below is one of the many ways that one can insert hard contacts quickly and efficiently.

　　Debbie McHugn

　　③The purpose of this essay is to convince you to buy an English Sheepdog.Debbie Walters

　　④Not many people know who I am, and those who meet me soon forget me. Teachersnever remember my name. The bank always asks for reendorsement, and Im constantly asked for identification. No one ever remembers me. I sometimes fantasize what it would be like if everyone remembered me.Nancy Likes-Jakovickas

　　⑤Hello! I know that this is your first day working as a cashier at the grocery.Dont be nervous!Let me explain to you the few basic steps of running the cash register.Eileen Cassidy

　　⑥Watching my son, Jason, play can really be amazing. He always seems to amuse himself no matter if he has store-bought toys or a cardboard box.Jason has what all children seem to possess:imagination.

　　Michele Reczynski

　　⑦When most people getsintosa car they notice the interior and the handling. I am different; I look at and listen to the stereo. Factory installed stereos often look cheap and have terrible sound. Buying and installing a stereo system that suits your own tastes means that your cars stereo will look good and sound good. Installing your own car stereo isnt as hard as it sounds if you follow a few simple steps.

　　Wally Danczak

　　⑧The Webster New World Dictionary defines the word embarrass as“to cause tofeel selfconscious, to hinder, or to be in doubt.”In my opinion, this definition doesnt describe the degree of embarrassment felt or the psychological selfdoubt it might cause a person which could affect a persons later life.Daniel Marx

　　⑨Do you recall looking at the rundown condition of your pool after a long, cold winter and wondering how you will get it finished by the time the warm weatherarrives? A torn liner, green murky water, and rotted deck boards make you wonder if youll ever swim again. With a little work and know-how, however, you can start filling your pool in as little as two days.Chuck Kalvelage

　　2文章的结尾(Concluding Paragraphs)

　　文章或段落的结尾和开头一样对整个文章来说是非常主要的。这是作者最后一次和读者交流的机会，这里可以进一步的进行解释，加强，或者总结你在文中所阐述的观点和看法。一个好的结尾可以使你留住读者，同样一个不好的结尾会使读者失望和扫兴。不幸的是我们不少同学在文章的阐述部分下了很大的功夫，而在结尾却匆匆了事，这样文章就没有达到预期的效果。

　　(1)文章结尾的种类：

　　有几种结尾方式，其中绝大多数和开头的方式相似。现在请学习以下几种结尾的方式。

　　①总结式(summary)

　　例如：

　　As you can see from the proceeding examples, you only need to be steady and confident when you approach that first customer.A neat appearance, a pleasant smile, and a nonpushy attitude certainly contribute, but self-confidence really is the biggest factor.

　　Jack Hudson

　　②另外一种总结的方式(classifying thingssintosseveral categories)

　　例如：

　　Obviously, not all students fitsintosthese categories, but I think that most of them do: the walkers, the talkers, and the students. Why not look around and see if you find any of these students in your school?

　　Tim McArthur

　　③总结归纳式(generalization)

　　例如：

　　All of these incidents have taught me that no matter what the activity-soaking in the tub, puttering around the workshop, lounging in the pool-any activity is enhanced by music. From now on, any time I find myself ready to take it easy, Imgoing to find my radio to take along.

　　④引言式(quotation)

　　例如：

　　The dictionary defines the word teacher as“one who educates; gives lessons to,”or as“one who disciplines.”I entirely agree. I have written this essay toshow the various ways a human being can experience these procedures. I believe we encounter learning experiences every day of our lives and that all of us are teachers of others.

　　Sandra Schmidt

　　⑤比较与对比式(comparison and contrast)

　　例如：

　　So, as the old, worn-out sayings go, love is like a roller coaster: it has its ups and its downs; love is like a rosebush: it has its blossoms and it has its thorns. But in all honesty, love is summarized by those sayings. The sayings are old, but then so is love.

　　Jill Fisher

　　一个好的结尾与好的开头一样同样是非常重要的。如果你还未认识到这一点，你就应该在这方面多下一些功夫，一定要把结尾写好。

　　(2)供你学习和模仿的较好的结尾

　　①I realize that a lot of people might very easily get bored with such small town living, but this sleepy, unexciting, little town isswheresI feel most comfortable. It is home.

　　Leslie Chersi

　　②A dictionary definition does not come close to saying all the things a friendreally is. True friends are much more than“trustworthy companions.”They are a very important part of our lives.

　　Donna Morrey

　　③Our family has found a common interest that we can all relate to and it has brought us closer together. Camping has definitely become an enjoyable learning experience for my whole family and I am glad that we have found it.

　　Sharon Doyle

　　④After you have completed this last step you have finished pin striping the rightside of your car. You should feel good knowing you have saved yourself approximately fifty dollars, plus you did it yourself! Well, theres only one thing leftto do now: the left side of your car.

　　Bob Sikora

　　⑤As you can see, high school and college differ greatly in these three respects. I must say, after experiencing both high school and college: I much prefer the responsibility which comes with attending college.

　　Gail Staszak

　　⑥I wonder if people realize that animals can feel pain. Do people even realize what kind of pain the animals must be in? All this senseless killing for a luxury!People do not need furs to survive, but animals do.

　　Jill Hultquist

　　⑦These are only a sample of the many different patients you encounter in the hospital. The next time you visit a patient at the hospital, try to guess which category he or she falls into. It becomes a rather fun game to play.

　　Kathleen Falica

　　⑧Both forms of education can work well if used for the right purpose. A formaleducation cannot teach how to find the best largemouth bass in a small lake. An informal education would be equally useless in learning higher mathematics orbiochemistry.

　　Jon Asplund

　　3.文章主体(body)部分的展开模式

　　文章中的主体部分一般是按照一定的顺序和方法展开的，如时间顺序、空间顺序，分类法、列举法、比较对照法等等。请阅读下列各种写作手法，并在空格中填入适当的用词，这样能使你更好地提高写作水平。请千万不要在没有努力的情况下，就轻而易举地去对照答案，这样没有收获。

　　(1)时间顺序法

　　Riding a bicycle has proven dangerous for me.①②encounter which led me to this conclusion was at age five.③④bike and I were hit by a station wagon. This accident resulted in one broken huffy and needless to say, one broken person, yours truly.⑤⑥experience, although not as physically damaging as⑦⑧, came as a greater mental shock. I was riding through a shopping center parking lot until a car and I decided to occupy the same place at the same time.⑨⑩, I found myself on top of the cars hood (车盖) staringsintosthe drivers shocked face. I got down and found my body intact (未受损的) but my mind ashambles (被轰炸后的废墟，大混乱).bike incident I had was at age fifteen. A friend and I were racing when I hit his back tire (I was losing); this caused me to flip off the bike head first. Saving my head, I broke my arm., I now walk agreat deal.

　　(2)空间顺序法

　　Cleaning our house requires some organization. We usually begin upstairs, doing all four bedrooms and both bathrooms.①it is down to the next level for the living room, dining room, kitchen, and my fathers den (小而舒适的书斋).②③，we retreat to the basement and straighten up the recreation room, the den, and my fathers workshop.

　　④we are really ambitious, our cleaning moves out to the garage. The⑤⑥is out back to the patio(天井，院子). A redwood lounge chair and a cold drink indicate it is quitting time.

　　(3)分类法

　　分类文(classification)是一种按一定标准和原则将人或客观事物分门别类，以总结各类事物不同特征的文章形式。这种方式适合于说明性段落。较常见的是先说次要的，把最主要的留在后面。也有按相反顺序来写的。

　　任何一篇分类文中的主旨句和段落的主题句的主要内容都是阐明分类的事物、分类原则和类别。

　　1)分类主旨句

　　①Clouds are classified cumulus and status according to how they are formed.

　　②Clouds are classified by altitudesintosfour families: big clouds, middle clouds, low clouds, and towering clouds.

　　③It is possible to define five general types of audience of any rock-and-roll concerts on the basis of dress, manner, consumption, age, and music taste.

　　④The marijuana user, on any given campus, may be placed in one of three categories: a dabbler, a user, and a head.

　　⑤What we see growing around us is a sort of social stratifcation in which the highbrows are the elite, the middlebrows are bourgeoisie, and the lowbrows are hoipolloi.

　　一般来说分类文(段)具有以下基本框架：

　　首段Introduction(含点明分类标准和类属的主旨句)

　　类型1Type 1

　　类型2Type 2

　　类型3Type 3，4，5，……

　　尾段Conclusion

　　下例就是按这一框架写成的段落：

　　2)主题句

　　There are three kinds of book owners according to the way they deal with their books. (Type 1: nonreaders) The first has all the standard sets and best-sellers unread, and even untouched.(Type 2: occasional readers)

　　The second has a great many books-a few of them read through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean and shiny as the day they were bought. (Type 3: devoted readers)

　　The third has a few books or many-every one of them dog-eared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribbled in from front to back.(conclusion) In a word, these categories of books owners are different in the number of books you own and in the extent they make use of their books.

　　分类法填空练习(请做下列填空)

　　Meteorites (陨石) are of three general①: irons-composed 98 percent or more of nickel-iron; stony irons②roughly half andhalf of nickel iron and of a kind of rock known as olivine; and, finally, stones. The stones are further③, depending on whether they contain tiny bodies of the minerals olivine and pyroxene. The stones that possess them-more than 90 percent or all known meteoritic stones-are called chondrites. The few stones④lack these minerals are known as achondrites. All these categories offer useful⑤to those who try to reconstruct the history of the earth, for not only are meteorites fellow members of the solar system,⑥radioactive dating indicates that they are as old as the earth itself.

　　(4)比较对照法(请做下列填空)AOrinda is a different town today from①it was a few years ago. Many changes have taken place. In just a few years Orinda has been transformed from a small country village②everyone knew each other to a large suburban communityswherespeople who rush home each night from city office barely have time to get acquainted. Just a few③ago the children of Orinda walked to one small school through pear orchards and tomato patches.④they ride to several schools in cars and buses, driving past well-trimmed lawns and swimming pools. Orinda⑤to be quiet, rural town.⑥it is bustling and sophisticated. The rocking chair has been replaced by the aluminum recliner (活动躺椅)。Community suppers have given⑦to country club parties. The horse drawn plow has been replaced by the tractor and rototiller (旋转碎木器). The two-lane road⑧town has moved aside for a wide new freeway.

　　There are a few oldtimers left in Orinda who probably wonder whether all the changes that have taken place rightly⑨to be called progress, but most of the people are caught up in the new life and seem to be satisfied with it.

　　Two different worlds exist side by side today beneath the great central mountains of Java, but the ancient rural way of life appears to be prevailing①the recently westernized cities. The bamboo tubes②

　　carry water to the terraced rice fields of the countryside are more durable③the cracked pipes of the cities. The simple wooden huts of the villages are more enduring④the unpainted, cracking facades (房屋的正面) of the Western-style buildings in the city. The hammered copper utensils of the countryside are both handsome⑤more durable than the cheap, patched tinware used by city dwellers. The colorful sarongsin the countryside are more attractive than the bunchy (围裙) and poorly cut Western dresses seen on the city streets.⑥the twentieth century seems to deteriorate before one's eyes, the ancient vigor of the Javanese peasant survives in its timeless way.

　　(5)例证文

　　例证文(exemplification)是一种用实例说明、证实或论证一个道理、一种观点、一种意见和一个理论的篇章形式。

　　举例时往往大量使用以下词语和词组：

　　for example, for instance, to illustrate, as proof, as a matter of cause, to cite, to quote, typically, generally, on the whole,等。例如：

　　In this century, the presidents are much more cut off from contact with the people than①earlier times. Ordinary citizens,②③, could get to see Abraham Lincoln directly in the White House and make their requests to him in person. (例证1) Quite the④, President Nixon was hard to reach, even by his own staff. (例证2) As⑤President Jimmy Carter, although he made some efforts tobe available by visiting several private citizens in their homes, the presidentand his home-the white House-are hardly⑥(例证3). Time has made a⑦in the contact between the presidents and their people in this country.

　　(6)定义文

　　定义文(definition)是一种对事物、词语和概念进行解释，以确定其本质内容和意义范围的篇章形式。

　　1)简单定义形式

　　①Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior.

　　②Meteorolgy is the science of weather and climate.

　　③Identification is a defense mechanism in which we imagine that we arenot like another person.

　　④A doctor is a person who is a physician or surgeon.

　　⑤A doctor is a person licensed to practice any one of the healing arts.

　　2)定义的扩充形式

　　①Democracy (term to be defined) refers primarily to a form of government (genus) by the many (difference) as opposed to government by one-government by the people (clarification of the difference) as opposed to government by a tyrant, or an absolute monarch.

　　在有些扩充的定义形式中，作者首先指出被定义的词的意义范畴，然后用描述的方法说明其特定的意义内涵，性质或特征，例如：

　　②A tiger, a member of the cat family, is native to Asia, usually weighs over 350 pounds, and has tawny and black-striped fur.

　　文章主体(body)部分的展开模式练习答案

　　(1)时间顺序法

　　①The②first③My④first⑤My⑥next⑦the⑧first⑨Seconds

　　B10laterB11TheB12lastB13consequently

　　(2)空间顺序法

　　①Then②After③that④If⑤final⑥step

　　(3)分类法

　　①classes②composed③subdivided④that⑤clues⑥but

　　(4)比较对照法

　　1)①what②where③years④Now⑤used⑥now⑦way⑧through⑨deserve

　　2)①over②which③than④than⑤and⑥While

　　(5)例证文

　　①in②for③example④opposite⑤for⑥accessible⑦change

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