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¡¡Effective QuestioningÓÐЧÌáÎÊ

¡¡¡¡Questioning

¡¡¡¡An important focus of democratic discussion should be on getting as many people as possible deeply engaged in the conversation. Whatever being said and done should facilitate and promote this level of engagement. As a number of commentators have pointed out, at the heart of sustaining an engaging discussion are the skills of questioning and listening. Of the three, learning to question takes the most practice and skill. Although it is certainly true that the kinds of questions one asks to begin a discussion set an important tone, it is equally true that subsequent questions asked by both thesgroupsleader and the members can provide a powerful impetus for sustaining discussion. Indeed, how we ask questions can make the difference between a discussion that goes nowhere and one that turnssintosa¡°complex communal dialogue that bounces all around the room.¡±

¡¡¡¡Types of Questions

¡¡¡¡Once the discussion is moving along, several kinds of questions are particularly helpful in maintaining momentum.

¡¡¡¡Questions That Ask for More Evidence

¡¡¡¡These questions are asked when participants state an opinion that seems unconnected to what¡¯s already been said or that someone else in thesgroupsthinks is erroneous, unsupported, or unjustified. The question should be asked as a simple request for more information, not as a challenge to the speaker¡¯s intelligence. Here are some examples:

¡¡¡¡How do you know that?

¡¡¡¡What data is that claim based on?

¡¡¡¡What does the author say that supports your argument?

¡¡¡¡What evidence would you give to someone who doubted your interpretation?

¡¡¡¡Questions That Ask for Clarification

¡¡¡¡Clarifying questions give speakers the chance to expand on their ideas so that they can be understood by other members in the group. Here are some examples:

¡¡¡¡Can you put that in another way?

¡¡¡¡Would you give us an example on what you are talking about?

¡¡¡¡What do you mean by saying that?

¡¡¡¡Can you explain the term you just used?

¡¡¡¡Could you give a different illustration of your point?

¡¡¡¡Open Questions

¡¡¡¡Questions that are open-ended, particularly those beginning with how and why, are more likely to provoke others- thinking and problem-solving abilities. Here are some examples of open questions:

¡¡¡¡Savage says that when facing moral crises, people who agonize don¡¯t act, and people who act don¡¯t agonize. What does he mean by this?

¡¡¡¡Racism pervaded American society throughout the twentieth century. What are some signs that things are as bad as ever? What are other signs that racism has abated significantly?

¡¡¡¡Why do you think many people devote their lives to education despite the low pay and poor working conditions?

¡¡¡¡Linking or Extension Questions

¡¡¡¡An effective discussion leader tries to create a dialogical community in which new insights emerge from prior contributions ofsgroupsmembers. Linking or extension questions actively engage members in building on one another¡¯s responses to questions. Here are some examples of such questions:

¡¡¡¡Is there any connection between what you¡¯ve just said and what Patrick was saying a moment ago?

¡¡¡¡How does your comment fit in with John¡¯s earlier comment?

¡¡¡¡How does your observation relate to what thesgroupsdecided last week?

¡¡¡¡Does your idea challenge or support what we seem to be saying?

¡¡¡¡How does that contribution add to what has already been said?

¡¡¡¡Hypothetical Questions

¡¡¡¡Hypothetical questions ask others to consider how the circumstances of a case is changing might alter the outcome. Because such questions encourage highly creative responses, they can sometimes cause members to veer offsintosunfamiliar and seemingly tangential realms. But with asgroupsthat is reluctant to take risks or that typically answers in a perfunctory, reutilized manner, the hypothetical question can provoke flights of fancy that can take asgroupsto a new level of engagement and understanding. Here are some examples of hypothetical questions:

¡¡¡¡How might World War¢òhave turned out if Hitler had not decided to attack the Soviet Union in 1941?

¡¡¡¡In the video we just saw, how might the discussion have been different if the leader had refrained from lecturing the group?

¡¡¡¡Cause-and-Effect Questions

¡¡¡¡Questions that provoke members to explore cause-and-effect linkages are fundamental to developing critical thought. Here are some examples:

¡¡¡¡What is likely to be the effect of raising the average salary from 300 hundred pounds to 500 hundred?

¡¡¡¡How might the salary raise affect production?

¡¡¡¡Summary Questions

¡¡¡¡Finally, one of the most valuable types of questions that can be used invites others to summarize or synthesize what has been thought and said. These questions call on participants to identify important ideas and think about them in ways that will aid recall. For instance, the following questions are usually appropriate and illuminative.

¡¡¡¡What are the one or two most important ideas that emerged from this discussion?

¡¡¡¡What remains unresolved about this topic?

¡¡¡¡What do you understand better as a result of today¡¯s discussion?

¡¡¡¡Based on our discussion today, what do we need to talk about next time if we¡¯re to understand this issue better?

¡¡¡¡What key word or concept best captures our discussion today?

¡¡¡¡Summary

¡¡¡¡By skillfully mixing all the different kinds of questions outlined above,sgroupsleaders or members can control or follow the pace and direction of conversation, keeping others alert and engaged.

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¡¡Effective ListeningÓÐЧÇãÌý

¡¡¡¡What Is Listening

¡¡¡¡Listening comprises the steps of hearing and interpreting. Hearing is a physiological process that involves the reception of sound waves by the ear. It is only the first element of listening, which also includes the interpretation of those sound waves (and other signals) to determine what the sender meant. A person with acute hearing may be a poor listener who does not interpret others¡¯statements accurately or respond appropriately. In contrast, someone with considerable hearing loss may be a good listener who is motivated to understand others the way they want to be understood. Suchsgroupsmembers attend closely to the interaction, ask others to speak up, and check the accuracy of their interpretations.

¡¡¡¡How to Be a Good Listener

¡¡¡¡Roach and Wyatt suggest four important things to remember if you want to be a good listener. First, good listeners pay attention to the context of what is said. Have you ever been quoted¡°out of context?¡±If so, you know that context can change the entire meaning of what is said. Suppose Mary says she¡¯s not sure the president of your organization will read your group¡¯s entire report right away because she¡¯s in the middle of performance reviews with all the committee heads. Saying¡°Mary said the president won¬ðt bother to read our report¡±seriously distorts what Mary said and ignores the context of the president being too busy at the moment to give the report full attention.

¡¡¡¡Second, good listeners pay attention to the feelings of the speaker. Remember the affective component of a message? When Tom says,¡°Yes, that idea is fine¡±in a resigned, flat tone of voice, he¡¯s probably expressing a negative feeling about the idea, without actually saying so. A good listener will verify that interpretation:¡°Tom, you said you like it but you don¡¯t sound too enthused. Would you share your concerns with us?¡±

¡¡¡¡Third, when the organizational pattern a speaker uses is confusing, good listeners help speakers make themselves clear by asking questions to clarify. For example, Shanda is a statistics whiz who completed all the computer analyses for your group¡¯s project. She knows her stats so well that she skips steps in explaining them to the rest of you, who are lost. You can help her communicate more clearly by asking her questions that encourage her to fill in the gaps.

¡¡¡¡Finally, it is important to interpret silence carefully. Silence can mean that people don¡¯t understand what was said, that they don¡¯t agree, that they are apathetic, or that they are hoarding information as a power play.sgroupsleaders often mistake silence for agreement when it is something else. Again, a well-timed question will help interpret silence correctly.

¡¡¡¡Pitfalls to Listening Effectively

¡¡¡¡Our listening is impaired when we are tired, preoccupied, or overloaded with information and noise. But even when we are not bothered by such concerns, we still may listen poorly as a result of bad habits we are not aware of. We either do not pay attention carefully to the speaker, or we pay too close attention-to the wrong things! The following are behaviors that interfere with good listening:

¡¡¡¡1. Pseudolistening.

¡¡¡¡Pseudolistening refers to faking the real thing. Pseudolisteners nod, smile, murmur polite responses, look the speaker in the eye, and may even give verbal support like¡°right¡±or¡°good idea.¡±But behind the mask, the pseudolistener has¡°zoned off¡±on a daydream, a personal problem, sizing up the speaker, or mentally preparing a response. When such behavior is challenged, most pseudolisteners blame the speaker (¡°That stuff he was saying was boring¡±) when they really hadn¡¯t given the speaker a chance.

¡¡¡¡2. Sidetracking.

¡¡¡¡Related to pseudolistening is sidetracking,swheresyou allow something another member said to send you offsintosyour own private reverie. Sometimes you sidetrack the conversation in a completely inappropriate direction, thereby wasting the group¡¯s time.

¡¡¡¡3. Focusing on irrelevancies and distractions.

¡¡¡¡Sometimes distractions such as background noises, furnishings, and the temperature make it difficult for us to concentrate on the speaker. At other time, undue attention to speaker characteristics such as dialect, appearance, or personal mannerisms interfere, causing us to miss important points.

¡¡¡¡4. Silent arguing.

¡¡¡¡Many people listen selectively for information that confirms views they already hold. When they hear information that contradicts their chosen positions, silent arguers carry on an internal argument that opposes what they think the speaker has said.

¡¡¡¡You cannot listen both to yourself and a fellowsgroupsmember. You cannot mentally rehearse a reply at the same time you are striving to understand another. If you listen primarily to find flaws and argue them in your mind, you are unlikely to understand the speaker, the context of the remarks, and the meaning the speaker intends. We are not saying,¡°Don¡¯t argue.¡±We are suggesting that you make sure you understand others first, well enough to be able to paraphrase their remarks to their satisfaction, before you argue.

¡¡¡¡5. Premature replying.

¡¡¡¡Similar to silent arguing, premature replying need not involve disagreement. Most commonly, a person prepares mentally to make a remark before fully understanding the speaker¡¯s comment or question. It is also common forsgroupsmembers who know each other well to think they know what others are going to say before they say it - but they aren¡¯t always right! Jumping to a conclusion before the other has finished speaking results in a disjointed discussionswheresthe subject keeps switching.

¡¡¡¡6. Listening defensively.

¡¡¡¡When we feel psychologically threatened, we don¡¯t listen well. Feeling vulnerable, we generally quit listening insgroupsto invent ways to defend ourselves and attack the perceived threat. This is called defensive listening.

¡¡¡¡Effective Listening in a Group

¡¡¡¡Smallsgroupsmembers must work at understanding each other while they keep thesgroupsdiscussion structured and organized. Two types of listening are especially helpful for accomplishing this: active and focused.

¡¡¡¡Active Listening

¡¡¡¡A good test of how well you have been listening is a technique called active listening. This technique virtually forces the listener to understand a speaker before replying or adding to a discussion. The main rule is that you must state in your own words, or paraphrase what you understood the previous speaker to mean, then ask for a confirmation or correction of your paraphrase. The following example illustrates the technique:

¡¡¡¡Sender: I don¡¯t know how I am going to solve this messy problem.

¡¡¡¡Receiver£ºYou¡¯re really stumped on how to solve this one.

¡¡¡¡Sender: Please, don¡¯t ask me about that now.

¡¡¡¡Receiver: Sounds like you¡¯re awfully busy right now.

¡¡¡¡Sender: I thought the meeting today accomplished nothing.

¡¡¡¡Receiver: You were very disappointed with our meeting.

¡¡¡¡Another example:

¡¡¡¡Daniel: If every college graduate were required to demonstrate some competence in using a computer, that might help right at graduation. But computers are changing so rapidly that graduates would be no better off in a few years than if they had no such training, unless they kept up to date or had to use a computer all along. (opinion)

¡¡¡¡Taylor: Do I understand you right? Are you saying that a computer science course should not be required to get a degree? (attempted paraphrase of Daniel¡¯s opinion)

¡¡¡¡Daniel: No, just that it should be more than just how to use a computer. You ought to understand computers, and what they do and don¡¯t do. (rejects the paraphrase and attempts to clarify)

¡¡¡¡Taylor: So you think there should be a requirement for a graduate to be able to explain what computers can and can¡¯t do, as well as be comfortable with a computer. (second attempt at paraphrasing Daniel¡¯s opinion)

¡¡¡¡Daniel: Yes, more than a course as such. (confirms Taylor¡¯s paraphrase)

¡¡¡¡Taylor: I agree with that idea, and think we should also have a requirement for ability to investigate, organize, and write a term paper. (His paraphrase was confirmed, Taylor is now free to add his opinion, on a new topic, to the discussion.)

¡¡¡¡Active listening slows the pace of interaction. If you are not used to listening actively, you may at first find yourself with nothing to say for a moment after the other finishes speaking. Keep practicing; soon you will find yourself making spontaneous responses instead of preplanned or irrelevant remarks. Above all, don¡¯t pseudolisten, which often damages trust and cooperation.

¡¡¡¡Becoming an active listener in a smallsgroupstakes practice, but the supportive climate you help create when you listen actively increases cohesiveness and cooperation in your group. You also will learn when this technique is needed, and when it will unnecessarily slow the group¬ðs progress.

¡¡¡¡Focused Listening

¡¡¡¡Group members often have problems recalling what was discussed. During the excitement of exploring a new idea, it is easy to forget vital information, even though that is the responsibility of each member. Focused listening helps members recall important information, ideas, and issues discussed during a meeting.

¡¡¡¡Effectivesgroupsmembers maintain their perspective on the discussion as a whole by focusing their listening on the main points of the discussion. They organize the details - specific facts and opinions - by issue. Ironically, focusing on the main points helps them remember details better. If you want to be a productive group£¬keep track of the main issues by using key words rather than complete sentences, so you can reorient thesgroupswhen someone switches topics before closure has been reached. Focused listeners can serve as process observers who readily keep track of the discussion. They often provide an internal summary, or brief review of what has transpired up to that point in the discussion, thus keeping the discussion orderly and easy for other members to follow. Thesgroupsbenefits greatly from focused listeners who help keep it on target.

¡¡¡¡Summary

¡¡¡¡Listening is a complex process that involves both hearing and interpretation. Many factors, including one¡¯s culture, can affect the interpretation process. Several specific pitfalls on listening include focusing on irrelevancies, pseudolistening, side-tracking, silent arguing, premature replying, and defensive listening. Mutual understanding is helped by active listening, during which a listener paraphrases what the speaker has said insgroupsto try to understand the speaker as he or she wants to be understood. Focusing on main issues and decisions helps members keep discussions structured and organized.

¡¡¡¡ExercisesÁ·Ï°

¡¡¡¡Ask a question or make a comment that shows you are interested in what another person has said.

¡¡¡¡Ask a question or make a comment that encourages someone else to elaborate on something that person has said.

¡¡¡¡Make a comment that underscores the link between two people¡¯s contributions.

¡¡¡¡Make this link explicit in your comment.

¡¡¡¡Use body language (in a slightly exaggerated way) to show interest in what different speakers are saying.

¡¡¡¡Make a comment indication that you found another person¡¯s ideas interesting or useful. Be specific as to why this was the case.

¡¡¡¡Contribute something that builds on or springs from what someone else has said. Be explicit about the way you are building on the other person¡¯s thoughts.

¡¡¡¡Make a comment that at least partly paraphrases a point someone has already made.

¡¡¡¡Make a summary observation that takessintosaccount several people¡¯s contributions and that touches on a recurring theme in the discussion.

¡¡¡¡Ask a cause-and-effect question-for example,¡°Can you explain why you think it¡¯s true that if these things are in place, such and such a thing will occur?¡±

¡¡¡¡At an appropriate moment, ask thesgroupsfor a minute¡¯s silence to slow the pace of conversation and give you and others time to think.

¡¡¡¡Find a way to express appreciation for the enlightenment you have gained from the discussion. Try to be specific about what it was that helped you understand something better.

¡¡¡¡Disagree with someone in a respectful and constructive way.