第三章如何成为成功的小组领袖

　　小组中的组员像砖块，小组中的组长像灰泥，砖块是整体不可或缺的材料，但是没有灰泥就不能将它们整合在一起。本章将集中论述在小组讨论中组长的影响和功能。

　Introduction介绍

　　Accepting a position of designated leader means taking on special responsibilities and duties to serve the good of the group, as well as the larger organization of which it is a part. This, we believe, should be the central principle of any philosophy of smallsgroupsleadership.

　　The metaphor we suggest is that the members are the bricks and the leader is the mortar that binds them together, the bricks provide the support and substance of the group, but the mortar allows the wholesgroupsto hold its shape - completes the structure, so to speak. This concept of the leader as completer, as articulated by Schutz , suggests that“... the best a leader can do is to observe what functions are not being performed by a segment of thesgroupsand enable this part to accomplish them”or, if necessary, perform them.

Influences of asgroupsLeader小组领袖的影响

　　Effectiveness in achievingsgroupsgoals grows out of leader’s action choices, which influence four dimensions of problem solving: members- perceptions of the leader; members- perceptions of themselves and of each other; members- perceptions of thesgroupsas a whole; members- judgment on substantive issues. True to the systems perspective, these four dimensions interact.

　　Influencing Members- Perceptions of the Leader

　　Consciously or unconsciously, leaders influence how members perceive them. The most effective leaders do this at a conscious level insgroupsto control how they appear and thus how they influence others. Leaders who act informally and socialize with members promote perceptions of themselves as relaxed, unassuming, and part of the team. This can be helpful in putting members at ease and in minimizing status differences between leaders and members. It may also be appropriate when an appointed leader first takes charge and wants to show members he or she is not stiff and does not intend to run the whole show. The leader should be careful, however, not to act so informally that it is not possible to tighten up later if the need emerges.

　　Influencing Members’Perception of Themselves and of Each Other

　　Leader’s actions influence how members perceive themselves and what they regard as appropriate orientations tosgroupswork. Through references to each member’s participation, achievement, and skill, a leader contributes to role development in the group. By appointing people to record, present position papers, a leader enhances their visibility. Punctuality and attendance are encouraged by leadership actions that censor violations. If a member starts dragging in late or skipping meeting, the leader should indicate disapproval quickly before members conclude it is acceptable to miss meetings. Norms form quickly, so a leader must act with dispatch. By putting individuals on the spot, the leader can enforce discipline without resorting to heavy penalties. Also, the leader demonstrates to other members that lateness and absenteeism are not condoned. Remember, the leader is a prime setter ofsgroupsnorms.

　　Influencing Members’Perceptions of the Group

　　The leader can also promote the perception of thesgroupsas a whole by encouraging themes, slogans, or logos for the group. We generally encourage class groups to come up with a name. Slogans help asgroupsto see their purpose as a group.

　　Influencing Subjective Judgments of the Group

　　Generally leaders should try to avoid acting as advocates, because they have strong influence over members. Sometimes, however, advocacy is necessary. When it is, the leader should distinguish between personal views and those associated with the positions of leader - for example,“The executive committee will never accept the plan we’re discussing. They’ve turned down every committee proposal that restricts executive privileges. If we want to have any impact on corporate policy, we’ll need to find the next best plan.”This comment reflects the role of a leader. By contrast, the following is a personal stance, unlikely to win support,“I don’t believe in that, and I want an alternative.”

　Functions of asgroupsLeader小组领袖的作用

　　Designing the Agenda

　　An effective leader understands the issues that must be discussed and will organize them in a way that facilitatessgroupsprogress. Leaders who have solid overviews of the task and who distribute a logical agenda to thesgroupsusually provide effective guidance.

　　Competent leader often prepare two outlines: one that is private and one that is distributed to members. The private outline identifies key issues and the leader’s questions or concerns about each. Specific questions or comments may be noted and potential resources may be penciled in. The second outline, known as the public agenda, is for members and should be distributed in advance. The purpose of the public agenda is to inform members of what will be covered at a particular meeting so that they can prepare for productive, informed discussion. Leaders who distribute public agendas in advance of meeting close the door for excuses:“I didn’t know we were going to work on that tonight, so I’m not prepared to report.”

　　The public agenda need not be lengthy; its purpose is to inform every one of the topics that will be covered. Here, for example, is a public agenda for an initialsgroupsmeeting:

　　Agenda for the Opening Meeting

　　1. Why was thissgroupsset up?

　　2. What are we charged to produce or do and for whom?

　　3. How were the members of thissgroupsselected? Do we have special talents, experiences, etc., pertinent to the task?

　　4. How do we want to run this group? What do you expect from me as the leader? What kind of schedule is reasonable for meeting dates and times?

　　Please come prepared to discuss four items at the opening meeting at 4∶00 p.m. on Monday, November 12, in 107 Memorial Hall.

　　Members who receive an agenda like this are more likely to come prepared for productive discussion.

　　Promoting Teamwork and Cooperation

　　Establishing a climate of trust will do more than anything else to develop cooperation and teamwork among members. In addition toshavingsclear, inspiring goals and trust, there are specific things a designated leader can do to promote teamwork.

　　1. Speak of“us”and“we”，rather than“I”and“you.”

　　The leader should convey, verbally and in various other ways, that he or she is a full-fledged, committed member of the group. The designated leader also should ask what it means if another member consistently refers to thesgroupsas“you.”

　　2. Create symbols ofsgroupsidentification.

　　A sense of unity can be fostered by inside jokes, shared fantasies, logos, a name for the group, slogans, T-shirts, and so on.

　　3. Watch for and challenge any hidden agenda item that seems to conflict withsgroupsgoals.

　　If you suspect a hidden agenda item is interfering withsgroupsfunctioning or goal achievement, promptly bring this to the attention of the group:“Roger, you have rejected the suggestion thesgroupshas proposed without examining it fully. As a result, members are becoming frustrated and angry. Is there something going on that we should know about?”Avoidance makes such problems worse.

　　4. Share all rewards with the group.

　　Designated leaders often receive praise from authority figures of a group’s parent organization. Wise leaders give credit to the group, they comment about what thesgroupshas done, express pride in being a part of the group, and acknowledge the service of all members.

　　5. Keep arguments focused on facts and issues, not personalities.

　　Step in at once if any member starts an attack on another’s personality, ethnicity, or character. However, recognize also that members may have strong feelings about some issues, so don’t squelch expressions of feeling, as long as those expressions do not denigrate others.

　　6. Don’t let the discussion get so serious that members cannot enjoy themselves.

　　Humor may help reduce the tensions generated when people work hard together at the job of hammering out ideas. Good task leaders may have trouble with humor. Lee observed, for instance, that many of the most efficient leaders lacked human warmth, but groups need both efficiency and satisfying interactions. If you are not skilled at tension release, enlist the help of members who are. Bring thesgroupsback to task after the joke is over or the fantasy has chained out.

　　7. When asgroupsseems to be deadlocked, look for a basis on which to compromise.

　　Perhaps you can synthesize parts of several ideassintosa consensus solution or you can suggest a mediation procedure. However, to do so you must have been even-handed as the leader. Remaining somewhat detached from the fray, while listening, observing, and maintaining perspective.

　　Keeping the Balance

　　Balance is one of the keys to good discussion. When one or two people dominate the exchange of ideas, the benefits for the wholesgroupsare greatly diminished. Similarly, when groups identifiable by gender, race, class, or ideology completely withdraw from the discussion, the range of ideas being explored is greatly reduced. Of course, perfect balance is impossible, but attention to who’s speaking and who isn’t is one of the crucial elements in making discussion work.

　　We would illustrate this through three scenarios happened during class discussions led by the teacher.

　　Three Scenarios of Balance and Imbalance

　　What follows are three short discussion scenarios that focus on how the leader’s role affects the course of events. They show a teacher who exerts too much control over the discussion, a teacher who is too aloof, and a teacher who comes close to striking roughly the right balance.

　　Scenario 1: Too Much Teacher Control

　　Teacher: The assignment for the day was to read the conclusion of teacher Mike Rose’s remarkable autobiography, Lives on the Boundary. Rose not only concludes his story with some very concrete examples of how to cross cultural and class boundaries but shows us as well the implications of these examples for shaping educational policy. One of the strengths of the book is Rose’s ability to move back and forth between the worlds of classroom practice and national policymaking. What do you think of the way Rose handles this?

　　Student 1: I guess I didn’t notice what you’re talking about, but I was really impressed with what he says on page 222 about being hopeful and assuming that good teaching can make a big difference for students.

　　Teacher: Yes, that’s important, but almost the whole chapter that includes the quote you cite shows Rose going back and forth between practice and policy. Let me show you what I mean. (Reads about a page of material.) Isn’t that impressive? One of the things that makes this book great is that the implications for reform emerge from the particulars of everyday teaching. Anybody want to comment on that?

　　Student 2: I think Rose is a great teacher, but does he really think that every student can learn?swheresdid he get that faith in everybody?

　　Student 3: I have the same question, and I’m also disturbed by the fact that this is a story, that it necessarily has a plot. Doesn’t the need to have a plot affect the incidents Rose relates and how they get resolved? How much does this really help us understand the messy world of day-in, day-out teaching?

　　Teacher:I think you are all missing the point. This is a great story about one person’s successes and failures in teaching. It has a plot, sure, but that plot can still be translatedsintosproposals for reform. I mean, what do you think Rose’s reform proposals would look like?

　　Student 4: I don’t know about school reform, but could we talk about the episode when Rose helps that student make sense of the standardized test she took? With just a little help, she’s able to figure most of it out. How often do you think that happens with our students who regularly do poorly on achievement tests?

　　Teacher:Let’s take a look at that a little. I still want to know what you think Rose can teach us about school reform. (Long silence.)

　　The teacher in this excerpt is much too dominant and controlling. He insists on sticking to his own agenda despite his students- resistance. Moreover, he ignores the excellent questions his students raise, each of which could have led to a productive exchange. The teacher clearly likes the book and wants his students to like it，too. He is also intent on exploring the“big”issues of policy and reform. His students are much more interested in discussing and questioning its specifics. The potential for enlightening discussion is enormous here; students are taking a lot of initiative, and there is a great deal of participation. Unfortunately, the teacher is just too self-absorbed to see it.

　　Scenario 2: Too Little Teacher Participation

　　Teacher: What do you think of the last section of Rose’s Lives on the Boundary?

　　Student 1: I liked it, especially what he says on page 222 about remaining hopeful and using good teaching practices to help even the most poorly prepared students.

　　Student 2: I’m not sure why he’s so hopeful.swheresdoes that faith come from? I’ve been in lots of situationsswhereseven the best and most dedicated teachers couldn’t help their most difficult students.

　　Student 3: I have，too. Also, even though I liked the way Rose tells his story. I’m not sure there’s much to learn from it. Stories are not like day-to-day teaching. There’s no plot of climax in real-life teaching. Just plugging away and trying to make the best of it.

　　Student 4: But aren’t some of the incidents revealing? What about the example of the student who at first does poorly on the achievement test and then does much better with little coaching from Rose?

　　Student 5: I think Rose knows about underachieving students because he was there once himself.

　　Student 6: But he also became a scholarship student. I don’t think he does know what it’s like to struggle with poor preparation, limited skills, and especially racial discrimination.

　　Student 7: Does he still teach writing to students at UCLA, or is he doing something else now?

　　Teacher: He still teaches writing, but he also has an appointment in the School of Education.

　　This scenario seems, superficially, an improvement. Seven rather than four students have spoken, so the level of participation is higher. However, although there is enormous potential for discussion in the issues students raise, there is almost no continuity, no attempt to build on individual comments. Instead, the teacher responds to only one question - the one that is the least interesting and least likely to go anywhere. If the teacher had intervened just once or twice, each of the issues raised by students could have been considered and developed much more fully.

　　For instance, the teacher could have asked the first two students, who appear to disagree, to talk to each other about the citation from page 222. Questions she could have posed are“Does page 222 give any clues to the source of Rose’s hope and faith?”and“Where else would we look in the text to support one view or the other?”The whole issue of plot and story also seems rich. The teacher could ask.“In what ways do stories help us understand everyday experiences and practices?”and“In what ways are stories a flawed source?”The point here is not for the teacher to give her own views but for her to ask a question or raise an issue that gets students talking to one another.

　　Scenario 3: A Better Balance

　　Teacher: The assignment for today was to read the conclusion of teacher Mike Rose’s autobiography, Lives on the Boundary. Rose not only concludes his story with some concrete examples of how to cross cultural and class boundaries but also shows us some of the implications of these examples for shaping educational policy. Could you comment on some of these examples and their value for promoting educational reform?

　　Student 1: The quote on page 222 was especially important. We must assume that students have potential and ability and then act accordingly. That should be the basis for all educational change.

　　Student 2: Maybe, but what makes him so hopeful?swheresdoes that faith come from? I’ve seen lots of situationsswhereseven the best and most dedicated teachers couldn’t help their most difficult students.

　　Student 3: I have，too. Although I like the way Rose tells his story. I’m not sure there’s much to be learned from it. Stories are not like day-to-day teaching. There’s no plot or climax in real life teaching. Just plugging away and trying to make the best of it.

　　Student 4: But aren’t some of the examples revealing? What about the student who at first does poorly on the achievement test and then greatly improves with a little coaching from Rose?

　　Student 5: I think Rose knows about underachieving students because he was there himself.

　　Student 6: But he also became a scholarship student at UCLA. He may have lost touch with those roots. I don’t think he knows what it’s like to struggle with poor preparation, limited skills, and especially racial discrimination.

　　Student 7: Is he still teaching writing to students at UCLA, or is he doing something else now?

　　Teacher: He’s still teaching writing, but now he has an appointment in the School of Education. But I want to get back to the other point. Can Rose teach us some valuable things about educational reform, or is his stance too idealistic, too removed from the realities of real classrooms?

　　Student 5: I still think his background as a student who was mistakenly put in the vocational track gives him a valuable perspective on injustice and on the failure to realize the promise of educational opportunity.

　　Student 6: You know, I forgot about that incident. It probably still has an important impact on his thinking and practice.

　　Student 3: I just don’t trust the story format. He makes it all come out so neatly in the end.

　　Student 1: Does he? I think he’s quite realistic about how much can he accomplish with students who have been neglected and oppressed. All those years of bad education are a great burden, but progress can be made, especially when we retain hope.

　　Student 3: But his determination to create a narrative of hope frees him of the obligation to recount all the failures, all the partial successes.

　　Student 2: And why be so hopeful? What’s the reason for keeping the faith?

　　Teacher: I think there may be at least two reasons for doing so, both of which are in Rose.

　　Student 5: May I?

　　Teacher: Please, go ahead.

　　Student 5: Rose is hopeful because there is no other choice. Despair is not a good basis for change.

　　Student 2: What about revolution?

　　Student 5: Perhaps, but while we wait for the revolution. Rose shows that if you’re patient and try hard to cross boundaries, if you keep looking for abilityswheresothers have only seen deficiency, great strides can be made.Teacher: Rose is like Dewey in a way. He can’t imagine being anything but faithful, but it is not a blind faith. It emerges from experience.

　　Student 2: Well, could we talk about some of those experiences specifically? What are the concrete bases for his educational faith?

　　Teacher: Let’s do that.

　　Perhaps the thing that most clearly distinguishes this scenario from the others is that here the discussion builds. At first students aren’t really conversing, but with a little prompting from the leader, they begin talking and responding to each other. There is clear disagreement, which is tolerated and even encouraged, but with assistance from the teacher, there is also some basis for agreement. The teacher makes six brief comments in this dialogue, but all but two (first and second to last) are intended to foster increased interaction and continuity. The scenario ends with the promise of much more discussion based on close attention to the text. This probably wouldn’t have happened without the teacher’s contributions.

　　Of course, this scenario may come across as a bit too idealistic; good discussions don’t materialize as effortlessly as this one seems to. But it is surprising what a difference a few well-placed questions and comments can make. This scenario shows thatsgroupsleaders don’t have to intervene constantly or absent themselves entirely to make discussion work.

　Summary总结

　　A designated leader is expected to perform a variety of administrative, structuring, and developmental activities on behalf of the group. A democratic designated leader encourages members to enact a variety of leadership functions while serving as a completer for functions not being supplied by other members. A leader has great influences on the discussion process and also has many responsibilities to take.