第五章小组讨论步骤的一个完整例子

　　为了完整地呈现小组讨论的画面，我们将小组讨论的全过程融合到一个具体的例子中去阐释。本章介绍了小组讨论的主要步骤。

　Procedures ofsgroupsDiscussion小组讨论的步骤

　　The framework of discussion consists of sequential phases of interaction through whichsgroupsleaders lead their members insgroupsto attain objectives. This framework provides discussion with additional structure that the leader uses as a guide to plan for and implement discussion. A sequence of four phases can be generalized as follows.

　　Entry

　　The entry to a discussion generally serves the purpose of focusing participants’attention on the topic, concept, issue, or problem to be discussed, and informing them of the objectives and rationale for the upcoming discussion. Every discussion has an entry although some are more purposeful than others. Some entries, in fact, are hardly discernible as such. A discussion entry should serve as a springboardsintosinteraction by arousing participants- interest.

　　Clarification

　　The second phase may or may not be necessary depending on the extent participants are familiar with the leader’s procedures for conducting discussions. The purpose of clarification is to inform participants of the guidelines for participating insgroupsdiscussions.

　　Another purpose for the second phase is to clarify terms, concepts, or other knowledge related to the problem, issue, or topic under discussion.

　　Investigation

　　The most important phase ofsgroupsdiscussion in terms of accomplishing the objectives of thesgroupsis the investigation. This phase is considered to be the main body of a discussion. In many respects, entry and clarification, if effectively implemented, have served to prepare participants for the investigation phase. Up to this point, participants- interest should have been stimulated and focused, the purpose for the discussion directly or indirectly provided, and any potentially ambiguous or confusing terms or concepts clarified.

　　Closure

　　The closure to a discussion wraps up what the entry initiated. Both phases are essential to effective discussions and complement one another. The leader provides focus and direction for what is to be discussed in the entry; during the closure the discussion is reviewed, and the integration and application of discussions are encouraged. Also, just as the entry serves as a transition from the previous lesson, the closure serves as a transition to the next discussion.

　An Integrated Example一个完整的例子

　　Entry

　　T1: What comes to mind when you hear the term“dirty election campaign?”(several students raise their hands)

　　S1: (calls out) Name calling.

　　T2: Andy, you had your hand up.

　　S2: Candidates lying about their experiences and positions on issues. Or making up things about their opponents that they know are false.

　　T3: Okay. Of the campaigns and elections we have Recitation studied up to the 1880’s which do you think was the dirtiest? Leslie (hand raised).

　　S3: If I remember right the text said the dirtiest election was Andrew Jackson’sswhereshis opponent attacked his wife, family and everything else about him.

　　T4: You remember well. It was Jackson’s first election. Pat, who was his opponent in that election and their political parties？

　　S4: (Reading from the presidential election chart in the appendix of his textbook.) In the election of 1828 Jackson was the Democratic candidate running against John Quincy Adams. He was a National Republic. I think Adams was the incumbent.

　　T5: Fine. Today I want to spend some time with you discussing what appears to be an old American election tradition-the emphasis of the campaigns on the candidates themselves rather than issues. It seems that the more elections focus on personalities, the dirtier the elections become as evidenced by the extent of name calling maliciousness, scandalous gossip, dirty tricks and lies.Clarification

　　T6: Before we open up the discussion to share our points of view on this issue，I want to briefly review the election presented in the chapter you read for today because it is a good example of negative campaigning. Some historians have referred to the election of 1884 as one of the dirtiest elections in presidential politics. Who were the candidates and their political parties? (several students raise their hands) Eric?

　　S5: I think it was Chester Arthur for the Republicans and Grover Cleveland for the Democrats.

　　T7: Not quite. Arthur was President at that time but the party passed him over for someone else.

　　S6: (calls out) James G. Blaine-“The continental liar from the state of Maine.”

　　T8: And what was one of the campaign slogans used by the Republicans against Cleveland? Bob (raised hand)?

　　S7:“Ma! Ma! Where’s my pa?”

　　T9: Catchy rhymes get votes many times! Yes, the election focused mostly on mudslinging about the professional and private lives of both the candidates. Can you do as well with identifying the campaign’s issues? Mary (hand raised).

　　S8: I think the major issue was civil service reform.

　　T10: Yes, and also protectionism. We’ll be talking more about these issues later. We know that Grover Cleveland barely wins the election with the vote from New York being essential for his victory. But the critical issues of the day were clearly overshadowed by the dirt, some of which was truthful, that was dug up and used by both parties. By the way, most of the same personal attacks on Cleveland also came up during his reelection campaign in 1888 and some new ones including beating his wife during fits of drunken rage. Even though his wife refuted this rumor, the lie cost him many votes and perhaps the election.

　　Investigation

　　T11: I want to shift gears slightly and have you think about the presidential election we just had. 100 years later. How would you compare the 1884, and to some extent the 1888, and 1988 election campaigns in terms of general dirtiness? (3 second pause) John (hand raised).

　　S9: Both seemed to emphasize personalities rather than issues. Some name calling. I think both candidates also tried to deceive the public.

　　T12: What do you mean?

　　S10: I think they lied about each other in their television ads.

　　S11: (joins in) I don’t think there was much lying. What Bush and Dukakis said about each other was basically true from what I understand. I remember the television ad with Dukakis riding an army tank. In it Bush said Dukakis opposed most of four defense systems and he did.

　　T13: Let’s look at this ad a little more closely as an example of campaign dirtiness. What was Dukakis’s stand on defense systems? David (hand raised).

　　S12: I know Dukakis favored some of our submarine and missile systems because I did a report on his position on the issues. I think he also favored the Stealth Bomber. That ad was completely untrue.

　　T14: Yes. This video ads was a good example of a falsehood. Other Bush ads inferred that nuclear pollutants were in Boston Harbor and Dukakis furloughed hundreds of first-degree murders. These were clearly falsehoods because the information presented was contrary to the facts. Can you think of any examples of Dukakis ads lying about Bush?

　　S13: (calls out) I remember my mother saying that the Dukakis ad claiming that Bush cut social security benefits with his vote in the Senate was not true. I think she said Bush only voted against an increase in benefits.

　　T15:You have provided plenty of evidence that the recent campaign was dirty particularly in terms of falsehoods created by the candidates. Some of the televised ads of both candidates, reaching millions of people every day, were lies designed to influence you to vote against one candidate and for another. Why do you think both parties were allowed to get away with blatant lies? (4 second pause) Vanessa (hand raised).

　　S14: Maybe its because very few knew they were lies. I don’t think the average person on the street knew the issues and candidates- positions.

　　S15: (joins in) That doesn’t make sense to me. Certainly Dukakis knew they were lies. Why didn’t his campaign people do something about them?

　　T16: Good question. They did counteract the false ads and other Bush distortions but not until late October when it was too late. The attitudes of the electorate had already been influenced. It was a case of too little, too late.

　　The other point Vanessa made is even more important. People are not informed about the issues and many just don’t care. Therefore, they are more willing to accept as truth what is being said by the candidates. I think one of the problems is that many of the elections have been focusing on the candidates themselves rather than the issues. Because the emphasis has been on people, and not ideas, they have been more prone to attacks. People are more vulnerable than ideas. This seems to be the case in the two elections we have studied, over 100 years apart.

　　T17: The cornerstone of democracy is an informed public - one that understands the issues confronting them and can use this information to compare the candidates- positions and make a thoughtful decision as to who is most deserving to lead the country for the next four years. Do you agree or disagree with me? (5 second pause) Bob (hand raised).

　　S16: I agree. I think there’s more of an emphasis on the personalities than the issues because of what Vanessa said. Many people don’t understand the issues and are not willing to learn about them except through ads on television. It seems like people are pretty lazy about something so important as a presidential election.

　　S17: (joins in) You know, I think my parents are a little like that. They talked more about the way Bush and Dukakis looked and acted than they did about their stands on issues.

　　S18: (joins in) Mine，too. But I have to admit I wouldn’t know about the issues unless we had studied them in class.swheresdoes that put me?

　　T18: Anyone care to react to Andy’s concern? (3 second pause) Chris (raised hand)?

　　S19: It means he was better qualified to vote in the presidential election than many parents. Too bad you’re only 16 years old, Andy.

　　S20: I also agree with you Mr. Mitchell, but I am not sure how you change things. You can’t require candidates to address issues and you can’t require adults to know the issues before voting. Looks like we’re left with things as they are.

　　T19: Do you think we can improve this situation and, if so, how? (5 second pause) Leslie (hand raised)?

　　S21: Why couldn’t at least one of the social studies, classes, during the next presidential election, serve as a sort of campaign watchdog for our community to make sure that the candidates address the issues and are truthful about what they say in their ads. Students could watch all of the candidates- appearances on television and in the ads and judge whether they are being truthful in what they are saying about themselves and each other.

　　S22: Great idea, Leslie! And if they are being dishonest or misleading the class could send letters to the editors of our local newspapers correcting their lies.

　　T20: Don’t forget the school newspaper. (5 second pause) Clair (raised hand)?

　　S23: The class could do a weekly newsletter for parents reporting the candidates- positions on issues and any misleading information by the candidates.

　　S24: (joins in) How about calling it“The Inquirer”to emphasize the need to search long and hard for the truth? Come to think of it, it is the opposite of what The Enquirer stands for.

　　S25: (joins in) They could also call local radio talk shows.

　　Closure

　　T21: I am very impressed with your ideas! Since we are coming to the end of the period, what I would like to do is write up a summary of your ideas for your review and approval tomorrow. Then I want to save this kind of position paper for the class that will be sitting in your seats four years from now to see if they would be interested in carrying out your suggestions during that presidential campaign.“The Inquirer”could become your legacy to the school’s social studies program!

　　We have been discussing the problems associated with candidate-oriented campaigns as opposed to issue-oriented campaigns. We have also examined falsehoods in presidential campaign television ads and how people may be relying on them too much for information. Most importantly we have concluded that many people are not informed about campaign issues and proposed some practical approaches we as students and teacher can take as citizens concerned with improving election campaigning. Tomorrow I want to look at civil service reform starting to take place in the 1880s and discuss one of the issues facing the civil service system today. We had an interesting discussion today. Thanks.