OUTLINES

　　Now that you have gathered enough information and skills to prepare the introduction, body, and conclusion of your speech, you are ready to reorganize it and outline it. A good outline meets four basic requirements:

　　1. Each supporting point relates to the main point.

　　2. Each supporting point contains only one idea.

　　3. Supporting points are not repeated or restated.

　　4. Each supporting parallel point has an equal level of importance.

　　1. Each supporting point relates to the main point.

　　Which supporting idea in the example below does not belong? Why not?Alcoholism is an international problem.

　　A. Russia has a high alcoholism rate.

　　B. France has the highest alcoholism rate in Europe.

　　C. Alcoholics have more car accidents than nondrinkers.

　　D. Japan has a severe juvenile alcoholism problem.

　　The answer is C. Although it is an interesting fact, it is not directly related to the main point - alcoholism is an international problem.

　　2. Each supporting point contains only one idea.

　　What is wrong with the example below?

　　Small cars are better than large cars.

　　A. They are less expensive and easier to park.

　　B. They get better gas mileage.

　　Point A contains two separate ideas. The information should be outlined as follows:

　　Small cars are better than large cars.

　　A. They are less expensive.

　　B. They are easier to park.

　　C. They get better gas mileage.

　　3. Supporting points are not repeated or restated.

　　What is wrong with the example below?

　　Students dislike the school cafeteria.

　　A. There is very little to choose from.

　　B. The food is too expensive.

　　C. The menu is extremely limited.

　　Points A and C repeat the same idea. The example below contains three supporting points that express different ideas.

　　Students dislike the school cafeteria.

　　A. There is very little to choose from.

　　B. The food is too expensive.

　　C. The eating utensils are always dirty.

　　4. Each supporting parallel point has an equal level of importance.

　　What is wrong with the example below?

　　Sales in South America have fallen drastically.

　　A. Colombia

　　B. Lima

　　C. Ecuador

　　Points A and C are countries. Point B is a city. The points should be all cities or all countries. The information should be outlined as follows:

　　Sales in South America have fallen drastically.

　　A. Colombia

　　B. Peru

　　C. Ecuador

TRANSITIONS

　　1. Functions of Transitions

　　Transitions are words, phrases, or sentences that connect the various parts of your speech. They provide the audience with guideposts that help them follow the development of your thoughts and arguments. Use transitions in at least the following places.

　　Transitions make it easy for your listeners to follow your plan for your speech. They remind your audienceswheresyou’ve been and tell themswheresyou’re going.

　　Think of transitions in a speech as“signposts”along a highway as you travel from one city to another. For example, let’s say that you and a friend are en route from Miami to Disney World in Orlando. A sign that says,“Welcome to Ft. Lauderdale.”Shortly after that you see another sign that says“Orlando, 200 Miles.”You knowswheresyou’ve been and how far you are from your destination. The signposts reassure you that you are on the right road, and they help you to stay on track.

　　Just as signposts on a highway are important, so are transitions in a speech. Transitions tell your audience that something new or important is about to happen in your speech.

　　Here are the major transitional functions and some stylistic devices that you might use to serve these functions.

　　(1) To announce the start of a major proposition or piece of evidence:

　　- First, ...- A second argument...- A closely related problem...- If you want further evidence, look at...- Next, consider...- My next point...- An even more compelling argument...

　　(2) To signal that you are drawing a conclusion from previously given evidence and argument:

　　- Thus, ...- Therefore, ...- So, as you can see...- It follows, then, that...

　　(3) To alert the audience to your introducing a qualification or exception:

　　- But, ...- However, also consider...

　　(4) To remind listeners of what has just been said and that it is connected with another issue that will now be considered:

　　- In contrast to..., consider also...- Not only..., but also...- In addition to ..., we also need to look at...- Not only should we..., but we should also...

　　(5) To signal the part of your speech that you are approaching:

　　- By way of introduction...- In conclusion...- Now, let’s discuss why we are here today...- So, what’s the solution? What should we do?

　　2. Content Transition

　　(1) Transition after the Introduction

　　Every speech needs a transition after the introduction. This transition should signal that the main part of the speech is about to begin. For example, look at the outline for“A Fabulous Fantasia Cruise”. After the introduction, the following transition signals the first section of the body:

　　First, you’ll be pleased to learn about the comfortable cabins that will be your rooms for the week.

　　(2) Transitions within the Body

　　Transitions are also needed between each section of the body. This kind of transition generally consists of two separate sentences that provide two important functions:

　　A. to review the information just presented,

　　B. to preview the next section.

　　For example, look at the outline for“A Fabulous Fantasia Cruise”. After talking about guest accommodations, the following transition is used before talking about the ship’s facilities:

　　Now you can see how comfortable you’ll be while in your cabin. However, the ship has many facilities for you to enjoy when you leave your cabin.

　　After talking about the ship’s facilities, this next transition is used before discussing ports:

　　As you can see, the ship has many facilities for you to enjoy while onboard. You will need to get off the ship insgroupsto visit the four ports.

　　After discussing ports, the following transition is used before introducing shore visit activities:

　　You now know which exotic places you’ll be visiting. You will have a choice of many fun things to do while on shore.

　　Finally, after talking about shore visit activities, the transition below is used before discussing shipboard activities:

　　We hope the shore visit activities won’t tire you out too much. You’ll need your energy, because once you’re back on the ship many other activities await you!

　　(3) Transition before the Conclusion

　　Every speech needs a transition before the conclusion. This last transition acts as signal that the speech is about to end. For example, look at the outline for“A Fabulous Fantasia Cruise”. The last section is about shipboard activities. The following transition links the body and the conclusion:

　　With all these great onboard activities, you might not even want to leave the ship at all!

　　3. Question Transition

　　The following is concerned with how the question transition works in conjunction with the introduction, body and conclusion.

　　“Good afternoon, everyone. Thanks for the opportunity to be with you today.

　　“Well, why are we here?

　　“We are meeting today to discuss a problem that will have a tremendous impact on everyone here.

　　“What is the problem I am referring to?”

　　Tell them what the components of the problem are.

　　“What are we going to do about this terrible problem?”

　　Give them a solution or alternative solutions to the problem, saving yours for last. You can do this with another question transition after you’ve laid out the alterative solutions.

　　“What do I think we should do?”

　　Tell them what your solution is.

　　“Why do I believe this is our best alternative?”

　　Tell them why you do, then go to your conclusion:

　　“Finally, ladies and gentlemen, what do I need from you?”

　REHEARSING

　　Effective public speaking delivery does not come naturally - it takes practice. Learn now how to use your practice time most effectively and efficiently.

　　The goal of practice is to develop a delivery that will help you achieve the purposes of your speech. Rehearsal should enable you to see how the speech will flow as a whole and to make any changes and improvements you think necessary. Through practice you will learn the speech effectively and determine how best to present it to your audience. The following procedures should assist you in using your time most effectively.

　　Rehearse the Speech as a Whole Rehearse the speech from beginning to end. Do not rehearse the speech in parts. Rehearse it from getting out of your seat through the introduction, body, and conclusion, to returning to your seat. Be sure to rehearse the speech with all the examples and illustrations (and audiovisual aids if any) included. This will enable you to connect the parts of the speech and to see how they interact with each other.

　　Time the Speech Time the speech during each rehearsal. Make the necessary adjustments on the basis of this timing.

　　Approximate the Actual Speech Situation Rehearse the speech under conditions as close as possible to those under which you will deliver it. If possible, rehearse the speech in the same room in which you will present it. If this is impossible, try to simulate the actual conditions as close as you can - in your living room or even bathroom. If possible, rehearse the speech in front of a few supportive listeners. It is always helpful (but especially for your beginning speeches) that your listeners be supportive rather than too critical. Merelyshavingslisteners present during your rehearsal will further simulate the conditions under which you will eventually speak. Get together with two or three other students in an empty classroomswheresyou can each serve as speaker and listener.

　　See Yourself as a Speaker Rehearse the speech in front of a full-length mirror. This will enable you to see yourself and to see how you will appear to the audience. This may be extremely difficult at first, and you may have to force yourself to watch. After a few attempts, however, you will begin to see the value of this experience. Practice your eye contact, your movements, and your gestures in front of the mirror.

　　Incorporate Changes and Make Delivery Notes Make any changes in the speech that seem appropriate between rehearsals. Do not interrupt your rehearsal to make notes or changes. If you do, you may never experience the entire speech from beginning to end. While making these changes, note too any words whose pronunciation or articulation you wish to check. Also, insert pause notations (“slow down”warnings, and other deliver suggestions)sintosyour outline.

　　If possible, record your speech (ideally, on videotape) so you can hear exactly what your listeners will hear: your volume, rate, pitch, articulation and pronunciation, and pauses. You will thus be in a better position to improve these qualities.

　　Rehearse Often Rehearse the speech as often as seems necessary. Two useful guides are: (1)rehearse the speech at least three or four times, less than this is sure to be too little; (2)rehearse the speech as long as your rehearsals result in improvements in the speech or in your delivery.