第三章

   1、the Middle ages名词解释

　　In European history， the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.

　　2、The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. To be specific (具体说来)， from the 5th century to 15th century.

　　3、The transitional (过渡时期) period is called the middle ages， between ancient times and modern times.

　　4、The transitional (过渡时期) period is called the 17th century， between the middle ages and modern times.

　　5、In 476 A.D. a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 西

　　6、Feudalism名词解释Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量)。 The word “feudalism” was derived (来源) from the Latin “feudum”， a grant (许可的) of land.

　　7、fiefs(次划分)名词解释In Feudalism， the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors (有功的大臣) or soldiers as a reward (奖赏) for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs.

　　8、vassals (占有fiefs的人)名词解释

　　In Feudalism， the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors (有功的大臣) or soldiers as a reward (奖赏) for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs was call vassals.

　　9、code of chivalry (骑士制度)名词解释

　　As a knight， he were pledged to protect the weak， to fight for the church， to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry， from which the western idea of good manners developed.

　　10、dubbing (骑士头衔加冕仪式)名词解释

　　After a knight was successful in his trained and tournaments， there was always a special ceremony (选择) to award him with a title， knight. This special ceremony is called dubbing.

　　11、knight trained for war by fighting each other in mock battles called tournaments.(模拟战场)

　　12、The crusades ended up with the victory of Moslems.(穆斯林)

　　13、The Manor (领地所有制)名词解释

　　The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords (农场主)。 By the twelfth century manor houses were made of stone and designed as fortresses. They came to be called castles.

　　14、After 1054， the church was divided into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

　　15、 The Catholic Church made Latin the official language and helped to preserve (保留) and pass on the heritage (传统) of the Roman Empire.

　　16、The word “catholic”， meant “universal”。(广泛的，无处不在的)

　　17、St. Jerome， who translated into Latin both Old and New Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals. Vulgate (拉丁语圣经)

　　18、Early Monasticism (早期修道院制)名词解释

　　Between 300 and 500 A.D.， many men withdrew from (放弃了) worldly contacts to deserts and lonely places. This movement developed into the establishment of monasteries (男) and convents (女) for monks and nuns. Some of the hermits (隐士) were great scholars known as “Father of the Church”， whose work is generally considered orthodox.(东正教)

　　19、Augustine —→ “Confession” (坦白) and “The City of God” (上帝之都)

　　20、St. Benedict —→ founded Benedictine Rule about 529 A.D. (专门给清修的人制定的法律)

　　21、The Inquisition (问讯厅) to stamp out so-called heresy.异教

　　22、The most important of all courses was Jerusalem. (耶路撒冷)

　　23、Crusades went on about 200 years.

　　24、There were altogether eight chief Crusades.

　　25、 (结束) By 1291 the Moslems (穆斯林) had taken over the last Christian stronghold. They won the crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the Crusaders had fought to control.

　　26、Carolingian Renaissance名词解释

　　Carolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne‘s name in Latin， Carolus. The most interesting facet (一面) of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle (有见解) of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate (吸收) the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.

　　27、Roger Bacon‘s work was the Opus maius.

　　28、National Epics(民族史诗运动)名词解释

　　The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is， the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.

　　29、Chaucer (乔叟) 的诗歌特点： ① power of observation (观察)

　　② piercing irony (敏锐的讽刺) ③ sense of humour ④ warm humanity (温暖的人性)

　　与狄更斯相似30、Gothic名词解释① The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe.

　　② It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and， in some areas， into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history.

　　③ The Gothic was an outgrowth (丰富与发展) of the Romanesque.(罗马式)

　　31、The Canterbury Tales：

　　① The Canterbury Tales was written by Chaucer.

　　② Chaucer introduced French and Italy writing the English native alliterative verse.(压头韵)

　　③ Both Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales are the best representative of the middle English.

　　论述简答

    一、In the middle ages， what cultures began to merge (融合)？

　　答：

　　Classical， Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged (文化融合)。 It paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.中世纪为现代欧洲文化铺平道路

　　二、Why is the middle ages is called Age of Faith (信仰的年代)？名词解释和简答

　　答：

　　1、 During the Medieval (中世纪) times there was no central (中央的) government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite (团结) Europe was the Christian church.

　　2、The Christian church continued to gain (赢得) widespread (普及的) power and influence.

　　3、 In the Late middle ages， almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics， law， art， and learning (思想领域) for hundreds of years.

　　4、It shaped (形成) people‘s lives. That is why the middle ages is also called the “Age of Faith”。

　　三、How did Feudalism develop in Europe in middle ages？

　　答：

　　1、 feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量)。 The word “feudalism” was derived (来源) from the Latin “feudum”， a grant (许可的) of land.

　　2、In order to seek the protection of large land-owners， the people of small farms or land gave their farms and land to large land-owners， but they still had freedom， they were called freemen.

　　3、While the people from towns and cities did not possess farms or land. They had nothing but their freedom to be given to large land-owners， and then they lost their freedom for protection. They were called serfs.

　　4、In Feudalism， the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors (有功的大臣) or soldiers as a reward (奖赏) for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs was call vassals.

　　5、There came a form of local and decentralized (分散化的) government.

　　6、 As a knight， he were pledged to protect the weak， to fight for the church， to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry， from which the western idea of good manners developed.

　　四、What positive influence does the Crusades exert on the European Culture？

　　(What is the great significance of the Crusades？)

　　答：

　　1、 The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. (拉近了东西方的交流)

　　2、During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine， kings at home found opportunities (机会) to strengthen (加强) themselves. Thus among other things， Crusades helped to break down feudalism， which， in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. (取而代之的是君主专制) 霍布斯主张君主专制

　　3、 Besides， through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems， the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire (期望) for wealth or power began to overshadow (战胜) their religious ideals.

　　4、The Crusades also resulted in renewing people‘s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century， universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals (阿拉伯数字)， algebra (代数)， and Arab medicine (医学) were introduced to the West.

　　5、 As trade increased， village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade in western Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments. (民族政府)

　　五、How did learning and science develop in the Middle Ages？

　　答：

　　1、Charlemagne and Carolingian Renaissance： (查理曼的文艺复兴)

　　① He was crowned “Emperor of the Romans” by the pope in 800.

　　② Carolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne‘s name in Latin， Carolus. The most interesting facet (一面) of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle (有见解) of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate (吸收) the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.

　　2、Alfred the Great and Wes*** Centre of Learning： (阿尔伏雷德大帝和威克萨斯王国)

　　① He promoted (奖励) translations into the vernacular from Latin works.

　　② He also inspired (授意) the compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. (编年史)

　　3、St. Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism： (经院主义，保守主义的雏形)

　　4、Roger Bacon and Experimental Science： (实用主义)

　　① Roger Bacon， a monk， was one of the earliest advocates of scientific research. (最早的支持者) 亚里士多德最早提出

　　② He called for careful observation (观察) and experimentation. His main work was the Opus maius.

　　六、How did literature develop in the middle ages？

　　答：

　　1、 The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is， the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.

　　2、Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy： (但丁与神曲)

　　① His masterpiece， The Divine Comedy， is one of the landmarks of world literature.

　　② The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed (预示) the spirit of Renaissance.

　　③ Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin. (只用意大利语创作)

　　3、Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales： (乔叟与坎特布雷集)

　　① The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work.

　　② Most of the tales are written in verse (诗) which reflects(反映) Chaucer‘s innovation (改革) by introducing into the native alliterative verse (压头韵诗) the French and Italian styles.

　　③ Chaucer is thus to be ， regarded as (被看作) the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.短篇写作第一人

　　④ Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales were representative of the Middle ages.

　　七、 What is the difference between the vernacular language used in the National epics and the vernacular language used by Mark twain？ (重点☆)

　　答：

　　1、 The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is， the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.

　　2、The vernacular (方言) language used by Mark twain refers to both local and colloq (地方式俗语) language used in the Mississippi area， with a strong characteristic of that region (地区) .Mark twain used vernacular language not only in dialogue， but also in narration. (叙述)

　　3、His representative works Life on the Mississippi.

　　第四章

    1、 Renaissance名词解释

　　Generally speaking， Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The word “Renaissance” means revival (复兴)， specifically in this period of history， revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance， in essence (从实质上讲)， was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts (试图) to get rid of conservatism (保守主义思想) in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie (资产阶级)， to lift the restrictions (禁忌) in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.(权利威信)

　　2、 Generally speaking， Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century.

　　3、 Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings， sculpture (雕塑) and architecture. 最早开始于painting

　　4、 Florence was the golden city which gave girth to a whole generation of poets， scholars， artists and sculptors (雕塑家)。

　　5、 In Renaissance literature of Italy， Petrarch (彼得拉克) was the representative poet.

　　6、 Intellectuals became closely tied up (息息相关) with the rising bourgeoisie.

　　(人文主义兴起的重要原因 Humanistic ideas to develop)

　　7、 At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of man.

　　(以人为本—人文主义的核心)

　　8、 Literature： The idea of the greatness of man is reflected in Shakespeare‘s literature.

　　9、 painting： The idea of the greatness of man is reflected in Da vincci‘s Mona Lisa.

　　10、Renaissance Art名词解释

　　A radical (根本的) break with medieval (中古的) methods of representing the visible (可见的) world occurred (发生) in Italy during the second half of the 13th century. It was not until the second decade (十年) of the 15th century that there was a decided break with the medieval pictorial tradition (田园式风格)。

　　11、Last Supper adapted from the New Testament of the Bible.

　　12、Mona Lisa - model wife of a banker.

　　- the ambiguity of the smile. (永恒的微笑)

　　13、Michelangelo - David

　　- Sistine Chapel (from the First book of the Bible， the Genesis )

　　- Dying Slave (垂死的奴隶)

　　- Moses (摩西)

　　14、Raphael was best known for his Madonna. (圣母玛利亚)

　　15、He painted his Madonnas in different postures (姿势)， against (*) different backgrounds.

　　16、One of the famous paintings besides the Madonnas is School of Athens (雅典学派)。 Plato and Aristotle engaged (使用) in argument.

　　17、Titian - The Venus of Urbino (断臂的维纳斯)

　　Man with the Glove (带手套的人) ☆

　　18、John Wyclif - translation of the Bible into English for the first time.

　　19、Jan Hus - Czech

　　- in Czech language

　　20、Martin Luther - translation of the whole Bible with the vernacular language.

　　21、The reformation get it‘s victory first in England.

　　22、Reformation名词解释The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as (同时) a socio-political (社会政治) movement. It began as Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg (机智) his 95 thesis (论题)。 This movement which swept over (席卷了) the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing (反对) the absolute authority (权威) of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing (代替) it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists (改革者) engaged (使用) themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues. 宗教改革的实质是：反对罗马天主教，直接形式是用母语翻译圣经

　　23、Calvinism名词解释Calvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. Presbyterian government (长老会)。 Only those specially elected by God can be saved (上帝的选民) . This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path (有助于资本主义的兴起)。

　　24、The national religion established after reformation in England was called The church of England or The Anglican Church.

　　25、It was under the reign (统治) of Henry Ⅷ that reformation was successful in England.

　　26、The English Bible was adopted (采纳) in England after Reformation.

　　27、Counter-Reformation (反宗教改革)名词解释

　　By late 1520 the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over the church in Germany.

　　The Roman Catholic Church did not stay idle (坐以待毙)。 They mustered (召集) their forces， the dedicated (专用的) Catholic groups， to examine the Church institutions and introduce reforms and improvements (改良)， to bring back its vitality (活力)。 This recovery of power is often called by historians the Counter-Reformation.

　　28、The Jesuits (耶稣社团)名词解释 Ignatius (拼写)

　　Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits， members of the Society of Jesus. The Jesuits went through strict (严格的) spiritual training (精神训练) and organized (有组织的) their own colleges to train selected youth who would be centre of their influence in the next generation.

　　29、Francis Bacon introduced Montaigne “Essais” into the English literature.

　　30、Montaigne was a French humanist known for his “Essais”(Essays)。

　　31、 The representative author of Renaissance in France was Montaigne with his famous work Essais. The representative novelist of Renaissance in Spain was Cervantes with his famous work Do Quixote， which marked European culture entry into a new stage. (歧视文学作品)

　　32、Art Greco - counter-reformation (反宗教改革的代表)

　　- the Baroque-treatment (巴洛克)

　　- The Burial of Count Orgaz (伯爵的葬礼) 典型的反宗教改革

　　33、Renaissance in Germany： Dürer - The Four Horsemen of Apocalpse

　　- Knight， Death and the Devil

　　34、到达英国晚的原因：The war of Roses and Its weak and unimportant position in world trade.

　　35、达到高潮的第一个原因：It was to produce some towering figures (顶级人物) in the English.

　　William Shakespeare， Edmund Spenser， Sir Thomas More.

　　达到高潮的第二个原因：The Reign of Elizabeth I was a period of political and religious stability (稳定) on the one hand and economic prosperity (繁荣) on the other. ☆

　　36、England began to embark (从事) on the road to colonization (殖民扩张) and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday (鼎盛) of capitalist development.

　　37、William Shakespeare

　　悲剧 —→ Hamlet (哈姆雷特)， Othello (奥赛罗)， King Lear (李尔王)， Macbeth (麦克白)

　　喜剧 —→ As You Like It and Twelfth Night (第十二夜)

　　38、悲剧上的特点：① astonishing variety in presentment (表现上的多样性)

　　② dramatic movement (戏剧上的时刻)

　　③ in characterization (人物的个性化)

　　乔叟中具有个性化的是女性39、Shakespeare‘s comedies prove Shakespeare to be a great humanist writer.

　　40、喜剧表现出的 between humanists and feudal and capitalist reality.

　　41、Copernicus (哥白尼)： —→ Centric (日心说)

　　42、Which was proved by Kepler and Galieo？ Centric (日心说)

　　43、Dante： The equality (平等) of the divine (神) power and the secular (世俗) power.(Satan)

　　44、Machiavelli —→ Father of political science.(Prince诸侯论 Discourses演讲篇)

　　45、美国小说之父 —→ 马克吐温

　　英国小说之父 —→ 费尔丁

　　英国诗歌之父 —→ 乔叟

　　论述简答

    一、Why do we say Renaissance first came to Italy？

　　(what propositions先决条件 were there in Italy for renaissance to flourish？？

　　What priorities优势 were there in Italy for renaissance to flourish？)

　　答：

　　1、 Because of its geographical position (有利的地理位置)， foreign trade developed early in Italy. This brought Italy into contact with other cultures and gave rise to (有推动力) urban (城市的) economy and helped Italy to accumulated wealth (积累财富)。

　　2、 Beginning from the 11th century， cities began to rise in central (中) and north (北) Italy. But there existed (存在) rivalry (竞争) among the cities and they were constantly (不变的) at war with each other.

　　3、 City-states (城邦) have been established in Italy in beginning from the 11th century.

　　4、 For two centuries beginning from the late 15th century， Florence was the golden city which gave girth to a whole generation of poets， scholars， artists and sculptors (雕塑家)。 There was in Florence a revival of interest in classical learning and rising of humanist ideas.

　　二、What are the characteristics of Renaissance art？

　　(How does Renaissance art differ from the other kinds of arts？)

　　答：

　　1、Art broke away from the domination of the church.

　　2、Themes (主题) of paintings changed (变化) to an appreciation(鉴赏) of all aspects of nature and man.

　　3、 The artists studied the ruins (毁灭) of Roman and Greek temples and put many of the principles (原则信念) of ancient civilization into their works. They began to be supported by individual collectors (私人收藏品)。

　　4、Artists introduced (采用) in their works scientific theories of anatomy (解剖) and perspective (透视)。

　　三、Why did Renaissance decline in Italy in the end？

　　答：

　　1、 The feuds (不合) of families， the conflicts of classes and the rivalry (竞争) between the city-states kept the economic structure of Italy in the traditional local order.(停滞不前)

　　2、In world trade Italy had lost its supremacy (优势) because of the discovery of America in 1492 and the rounding (环绕) of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488， the opening of an all-water route (全线贯通) to India which provided (供应) a cheaper means of transport.

　　单成选择题：Which of the following is not the course for Italy to lose its favorable position？

　　3、 The Protestant (新教徒) reformation forced (强迫) the Roman Catholic Church to tighten (拉紧) its control over thought， speech and publication.(语言和出版)

　　4、 One after another the cradles (摇篮) of Italian Renaissance， Florence， Venice， Naples， Milan were pillaged (掠夺) and devastated (毁坏) in the Italian Wars. Spain， France and England fought for the control of its resources(资源)。

　　5、from the above， it can be concluded that Renaissance finally declined in Italy due to the reason of different kinds.

　　① War ② Foreign trade ③ Position ④ Wars with the other country

　　五、How did capitalism rise and develop in Europe？

　　答：

　　1、Protestantism was prepared for capitalist development.

　　2、Imagination， creation and free thinking (思维)。

　　3、Calvinism. 4、Navigation (航海) and the discoveries of new lands.

　　5、Renaissance. 6、Reformation.

　　六、What is the great significance of the reformation？

　　(What positive influence does the reformation exert on world culture？)

　　答：

　　1、 The Roman Catholic Church was never the international court (法院) to which all rulers and states were to be morally (道德的) responsible for.

　　2、Economically， peasants (农民) all over Europe had no need to pay a good amount (量) of their gains (利益) to the Pope.

　　3、In educational and cultural matters， the monopoly (垄断) of the church was broken.

　　4、 In religion， Protestantism brought into being different forms of Christianity to challenge (挑战) the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic Church.

　　5、In language， the dominant position of Latin had to give way to (为…让步) the national languages as a result of various (不同的) translations of the Bible into the vernacular.

　　6、In spirit， absolute obedience (盲从) became out-moded (不复存在) and the spirit of quest (探索)， debate (争论)， was ushered in by the reformists.(凡事都要问为什么的精神)

　　七、Why do we say renaissance came to England very late， but in England renaissance reached its climax？

　　答：

　　1、The war of Roses and Its weak and unimportant position in world trade.

　　2、It was to produce some towering figures (顶级人物) in the English. William Shakespeare， Edmund Spenser， Sir Thomas More.

　　3、 The Reign of Elizabeth I was a period of political and religious stability (稳定) on the one hand and economic prosperity (繁荣) on the other. England began to embark (从事) on the road to colonization (殖民扩张) and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday (鼎盛) of capitalist development.

　　八、What are the Geographical Discoveries (航海大发现) in the Renaissance？

　　答：

　　The Renaissance was the golden age of geographical discoveries： by the year of 1600 the surface of the known earth was doubled (两倍)。

　　1、Columbus：

　　Columbus discovered the land of America. On his fourth voyage (航行) he explored (探测) the coast (海岸) of Central America(中美洲)。

　　2、Dias：

　　Dias was a Portuguese navigator (领航员) who discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487.

　　3、Da Gama：

　　Gama was a Portuguese navigator， who discovered the route (路线) to India round the Cape of Good Hope between the years of 1497 and 1498.

　　4、Amerig (亚美利哥)

　　Amerigo was the Italian navigator on whose honour (给某人) America was named. His discovered and explored the mouth of the Amazon (亚马逊河) and accepted South America as a new continent.(新大陆)

　　九、What contribution did the Renaissance make to the world culture？

　　答：

　　1、 The Renaissance created a culture which freed man to discover and enjoy the world in a way not possible under the medieval Church‘s dispensation.

　　2、The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow. (给…以致命打击)