文章词汇words

　　porcelain瓷器

　　earthenware陶器

　　stoneware粗陶器

　　ceramic陶瓷的

　　ceramics/pottery陶瓷的总称

　　decorative装饰的

　　utilitarian实用的

　　ornament装饰

　　burial object 埋葬品

　　oxide 氧化物

　　instigate发起，促成

　　文章翻译translation

　　一、陶瓷在中国悠久的历史中扮演了重要的角色

　　China has one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations-despite invasions and occasional foreign rule. A country as vast as China with so long-lasting a civilization has a complex social and visual history, within which pottery and porcelain play a major role。尽管中国曾受到入侵，偶尔被外国统治，但是她仍然是世界上最源远流长的文明之一。中国历史悠久，地大物博，这样的国家都具有复杂的社会历史和视觉历史，其中陶瓷就扮演了重要的角色。

　　二、在中国陶器的用途和分类

　　The function and status of ceramics in China varied from dynasty to dynasty, so they may be utilitarian, burial, trade-collectors', or even ritual objects, according to their quality and the era in which they were made. The ceramics fall into three broad types-earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain-for vessels, architectural items such as roof tiles, and modeled objects and figures. In addition, there was an important group of sculptures made for religious use, the majority of which were produced in earthenware。在中国，各个朝代陶瓷的作用和地位都是不同的，所以，根据它们的质量和制造年代的不同，他们可以是实用器具、陪葬品、贸易收藏品，甚至是宗教器物。对于容器、建筑材料(如瓦片)、物或人的模型等陶瓷制品来说，陶瓷可以被分为3大类：陶器、粗陶器和瓷器。另外有一种用于宗教上的重要的雕塑品，它们大部分也是陶器制品。

　　三、中国各个朝代的陶瓷

　　The earliest ceramics were fired to earthenware temperatures, but as early as the fifteenth century B.C., high-temperature stoneware were being made with glazed surfaces. During the Six Dynasties period (AD 265-589)， kilns in north China were producing high-fired ceramics of good quality. Whitewares produced in Hebei and Henan provinces from the seventh to the tenth centuries evolved into the highly prized porcelains of the Song dynasty (AD. 960-1279)， long regarded as one of the high points in the history of China's ceramic industry. The tradition of religious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearly delineated than that of stonewares or porcelains, for it embraces the old custom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images and architectural ornament. Ceramic products also include lead-glazed tomb models of the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels and figures of the Tang dynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs were outlined in a raised trail of slip-as well as the many burial ceramics produced in imitation of vessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value。最早期的陶瓷被烧制到陶器的温度；但是早在公元前15世纪，高温的粗陶器的表面就已经上釉了。六朝时期(公元265-589年)，中国北方就有窑炉生产优质的高温陶瓷。从7世纪到10世纪，河北以及河南生产的白陶逐渐的发展成为极具价值的宋代瓷器(公元960-1279年)-长久以来被认为是中国陶瓷历史上的一个巅峰。有宗教色彩的雕塑贯穿了中国历史的大部分时期，但是它们不像粗陶器或者瓷器那样在历史中突出，因为他包含了陪葬陶瓷的旧工艺，又用到了后来的宗教雕塑和建筑装饰。陶瓷制品还包括汉朝的铅釉随葬陶俑，唐朝的三彩铅釉器皿和人物，明朝的显示泥釉轮廓的三彩寺庙装饰物以及很多用贵重的材料制成的仿制的陪葬瓷器。

　　四、西方和中国的贸易促使了陶瓷艺术的发展

　　Trade between the West and the settled and prosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new forms and different technologies. One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-century AD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. So admired were these pieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made in imitation of porcelain and instigated research into the method of their manufacture. From the Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment-a purified form of cobalt oxide unobtainable at that time in China-that contained only a low level of manganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a high manganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. In the seventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. The Chinese themselves adapted many specific vessel forms from the West, such as bottles with long spouts, and designed a range of decorative patterns especially for the European market。西方国家和繁荣稳定的历代中国王朝之间的贸易促使新的陶瓷形式和不同的陶瓷制造技术的产生。其中一个意义最为深远的例子是公元9世纪精美的中国瓷器出口到阿拉伯世界所带来的影响。阿拉伯人非常仰慕这些瓷器，于是他们以模仿中国瓷器，促进了陶瓷的生产，并激励人们对生产方法开展研究。中国人从中东获得了一种蓝色的颜料--一种精炼的含有少量的锰的氧化钴，当时在中国还没有的这种颜料。中国的钴矿石含锰比较高，制作陶瓷时会产生暗蓝灰色的。在17世纪，荷兰东印度公司从事的贸易把大量的中国装饰性瓷器带到欧洲，这刺激和影响大量各式各样的中国瓷器的生产，尤其是是荷兰的代尔夫特陶器。中国人自己改造了很多种来自西方的器皿，比如带有长壶嘴的瓶子，并专门为欧洲市场设计了一系列的装饰性图案。

　　五、中国陶瓷上的装饰有其丰富的含义

　　Just as painted designs on Greek pots may seem today to be purely decorative, whereas in fact they were carefully and precisely worked out so that at the time, their meaning was clear, so it is with Chinese pots. To twentieth-century eyes, Chinese pottery may appear merely decorative, yet to the Chinese the form of each object and its adornment had meaning and significance. The dragon represented the emperor, and the phoenix, the empress; the pomegranate indicated fertility, and a pair of fish, happiness; mandarin ducks stood for wedded bliss; the pine tree, peach, and crane are emblems of long life; and fish leaping from waves indicated success in the civil service examinations. Only when European decorative themes were introduced did these meanings become obscured or even lost。正如希腊的壶罐上所绘的图案，今天看来也许纯粹是为了装饰，然而事实在那个时候它们都是被精心制作出来的，和中国的瓷器一样，它们的意义非常明确。以20世纪的眼光来看，中国制造的陶瓷也许仅仅是装饰品，但是对于中国人来说每件陶瓷的形式及其装饰都有丰富的意义。龙代表了皇帝，凤代表了皇后；石榴象征着多子，双鱼意味着幸福；鸳鸯表示了婚姻的幸福美。松树、桃树以及鹤都是长寿的象征；鲤鱼跳龙门意味着科举考试会高中。但是当欧洲的装饰主题被引进中国后，这些寓意就变得不再那么丰富甚至丢失了。

　　六、中国壶罐的应用

　　From early times pots were used in both religious and secular contexts. The imperial court commissioned work and in the Yuan dynasty (A.D. 1279-1368) an imperial ceramic factory was established at Jingdezhen. Pots played an important part in some religious ceremonies. Long and often lyrical descriptions of the different types of ware exist that assist in classifying pots, although these sometimes confuse an already large and complicated picture。很早的时候壶罐就被用于宗教和日常生活中了。元朝(公元1279-1368年)时期，在景德镇设立了一座官窑来替朝廷制作陶瓷。壶罐在一些宗教仪式上也扮演着重要的角色。不同类型的壶罐有很多长篇的通常是抒情性的描写，这可以帮助我们对其进行分类，虽然这些描述有时候使一幅已经大而复杂的画面变得让人难以理解。